Cultic prostitution, as opposed to commercial prostitution, by its very name infers a ritual act that is dedicatory and sexual in essence as a sacred offering to a goddess within a sacred precinct. This could be enacted symbolically: ‘intercourse with the deity is conducted through gifts. Votive offerings of all kinds.’
The bond between man and the sacred is consummated in the continuous exchange of gift for gift. It may be replaced by an image (Burkett p 35.) For Aphrodite, the sanctuary at Paphos on Cyprus has always been regarded as the centre and origin of her cult. The use of frankincense, which was always known in Greek by its Semitic name has a special association with Aphrodite(Burkett p 52). Aphrodite, Venus, has strong eastern connections and J.B. Salmon claims that this aspect of the cult reached Corinth from the east, perhaps immediately from Cyprus. The date of its arrival remains uncertain.
Strabo of Roman origin writing in the 1st century CE, claimed that ‘the temple of Aphrodite owned more than a thousand temple slaves, courtesans’ in Aphrodite’s service, ‘whom both men and women had dedicated to the goddess’[1]. Ritual and myth are the two forms in which Greek religion presents itself to the historian of religion[1]. A number of features which link Greek religion with Neolithic and early Helladic religion: … masks (Burkett p 15)
The history of religion cannot disregard the fact that it was precisely during the dark age, the time of confusion and debilitation, that the gates to an Oriental influence were opened (Burkett p. 52).
In Greece, W.W. Sanger claims the prostitutes were an aristocracy, ‘exercising a palpable influence over the national policy and social life and mingling conspicuously in the great march of the Greek intellect’[1]. ‘No less than eleven reputable authors have recorded the history of courtesans at Athens[2]. The prostitutes lived under the sanction of law and religion. Solon, for example, by law, formerly established houses of prostitution in Athens. The famous Statesman and Lawgiver filled these brothels with female slaves, supplying a legitimate source of revenue for the state[3].
Festivals were held to honour Venus in temples that were erected to honour the eastern goddess of love: the deity prostitutes paid homage to. The flute players, auletrides, held a festival, originally established in Corinth in honour of Venus Peribasia; all the great flute players from all over Greece assembled to this festival to celebrate their calling. Amongst them was the famous Lamia, who was the delight of not only Alexandria and King Ptolemy but also Demetrius of Macedon, ‘who levied a tax of some $250, 000 on the city of Athens as a gift to her’ [4].
Other festivals such as these were also established by rich men in honour of Venus and were held all over Greece. One festival, organised by Solon, was held at the temple of Venus Pandemos. Solon erected the temple and invited all the men of Athens to attend on the fourth of each month. Twenty temples were erected in various cities of Greece to Venus the Courtesian. Another was called Venus Mucheia, or the Venus of the houses of ill fame; yet another, Venus Castnia, or the goddess of indecency. All of these Venus’s mentioned and many other temples in her name, besides, had sacrifices and priestesses; their devotees were every man in Greece[5].
Greece claims many famous hetairai. Statues were erected to signify the beauty and prestige of some of the more famous[6]. Although confined within male representations, nevertheless, in order to survive in such an oppressive environment to women in general, these foreign women’s lives show ingenuity and subversive elements employed by them. On the other hand, it could be said that their intellect, beauty, and ingenuity was applauded to bolster the Greek male’s own image. There is no way of telling.
Aspasia is such a woman. A madam who ‘carried on a trade that was anything but honourable and respectable, since it consisted of keeping a house of young courtesans … Aspasia ‘won over all the leading citizens’ of Athens, and ‘provided the philosophers with a theme for prolonged and elevated discussions’[7]. Pericles who ‘made her [Athens] the greatest and richest of all cities, and he came to hold more power in his hands than many a king and tyrant’[8], was attracted to Aspasia. The reason given for the attraction was because of her wisdom and political awareness. For all that, Pericles, seemingly, was not like any other rich Greek man of his time who kept hetaireia, ‘he loved her to an unusual degree’[9].
The existence of the material recording their lives, and the androcentricity of the male narrative, assumes a repressive and buried part of their life’s story. One famous woman, Naera, for example, whose career originated in Corinth, was sold originally for half a talent[10]. Their way of life, however, it may appear through the lenses of phallo-centricity would have been the source of much pain and humiliation for the women. ‘First of all, they care about making money and robbing their neighbours. Everything else has second priority’[11].
In Aspasia’s case, the chaste women of Athens rose against her, and after being publicly insulted, attacked her in the street. Aspasia was also accused of impiety before the Areopagus[12]. The Creatines, a comedian of the time, ‘bluntly called her a prostitute in these lines: the goddess of vice produced that shameless bitch, Aspasia[13]. In spite of this, the heights the hetarai managed to reach in Athenian society goes a long way in showing how much greater Greece might have become had all women been emancipated to the degree that the Greek citizen male was.
For example, Aspasia continued to lecture on philosophy until the day of her death[14]. Her successor, Hipparchia, was one of the most voluminous and esteemed authors of her day. Another, Pythionice, was sent all the way to the governor of Babylon, Harpalus, and was installed in the palace following Alexander’s conquest of Babylon[15]. Pythionice ‘began top rule over the province, [and] governed Harpalus, it is said, with sternness and vigour’ until her untimely death, possibly poisoned by a rival[16].
Much more might be said about famous Corinthian prostitutes such as Lais and Phryne[17]. It is said that 1,000 young slaves worked at a temple to Venus, charging only one obulus [a cent][18] (see also p. 58 Sanger) Corinth was the largest emporium of commerce in Greece[19]. The city had a reputation for licentiousness[20]Regular schools were conducted in Corinth, which were held for young women to learn the prostitute’s trade[21]. It is said that 1,000 young slaves worked at a temple to Venus, charging only one obulus [a cent][22] (see also p. 58 Sanger) Xenophon had vowed a hundred sacred prostitutes to Aphrodite, ‘Queen of Cyprus, here to your sanctuary Xenophon has brought a herd of a hundred grazing girls’[23], if he was successful at winning the stadion and the pentathlon at Olympia[24].
Aphrodite, Venus, has strong eastern connections and J.B. Salmon claims that this aspect of the cult reached Corinth from the east, perhaps immediately from Cyprus. The date of its arrival remains uncertain. Strabo claimed that ‘the temple of Aphrodite owned more than a thousand temple slaves, courtesans’ in Aphrodite’s service, ‘whom both men and women had dedicated to the goddess’[25]. Ritual and myth are the two forms in which Greek religion presents itself to the historian of religion[26]. A number of features which link Greek religion with Neolithic and early Helladic religion: … masks (Burkett p 15) ‘There is no single origin of Greek religion (Burkett p 19)
A seal from Knossos shows a goddess standing between two lions on the peak of a mountain: an iconographical tradition which comes from the East: there the Mistresses of the Mountain, the Sumerian Ninhursag, was well known very much earlier (Burkett p. 28).
‘Women unquestionably held office in a wide range of pagan religions across the ancient world chronologically, geographically and culturally[27]. However, there is scant evidence available for the practice of cult prostitution as described by Strabo. The ultimate function ‘the affirmation of the social order as it exists’ is the goal of the male historian (Kramer p 34). Greek religion served to reinforce traditional roles of women’ (p 24, Kramer)
“but the most illustrious men of the tribe actually consecrate to her their daughters while maidens; and it is the custom for these to be prostituted in the temple of the goddess for a long time and after this to be given in marriage; and no one disdains to live in wedlock with such a woman” [28]
Venus came from the East. Gerda Lerner, quoting from various distinguished dictionaries[29]explains what these determine is the difference between the two, ‘In Mesopotamian society (and elsewhere) sacred prostitution, which characterised ancient fertility cults and goddess worship, led to commercial prostitution’[30]. Lerner prefers to make a difference by separating cultic from prostitution and instead rather, calls it ‘cultic sexual service’[31].
Her acceptance of cultic sexual service based upon the arche-official evidence of the existence of female figurines, abundant all over Europe, the Mediterranean, and Eastern Asia. Many of these figures have been found in shrines connected with the worship of female goddesses. There is no way of knowing, however, what the purpose was of these figurines.
There is abundant documented evidence of the lives and activities of priestesses in Ancient Mesopotamia and neo-Babylonian period and the temple staff caring for and feeding the deity. ’Thus a separate class of temple prostitutes developed’. Later, commercial prostitution flourished near the temple[32].
These women who represented the goddess came from the upper levels of society. Often, as in the case of the daughters of the line of kings such as the city of Mari, located far to the north of Sumer in what today is the Iraq-Syrian border (1790-1745 B.C.). Then, kings’ daughters carried out important religious functions amongst other religious, economic and political activities. A sacred marriage, a mythical union took place once a year.
This marriage was performed annually in the temples of the fertility goddesses for nearly two thousand years. It was ‘a public celebration considered essential to the well being of the community’[33] and was in relation to fertility rites commiserate to an agrarian society. The community honoured the priestess and her shepherd/king for having performed this ‘sacred’ service. Temple staff sexually serviced the gods and goddesses.
Evidence of a similar sacred marriage ritual has been discovered in the three-day Anthesteria, festival, referred to in Athens as the older Dionysia, in contrast to the great Dionysia, and associated by the Greeks with the blossoming of Spring (Burkett p. 237). On the day of the Wine Jugs the drinking of the new wine turns into a contest. The association of red wine with blood is widespread and very ancient. (p 238).
Here the wine is associated with the murder of Dionysus and his blood served as sacrificial wine (p 238). Finally a ‘queen’ the wife of the archon basilius. Is given as wife to the god himself. ‘Nowhere else does Greek literature speak so clearly of a sacred marriage ritual How the ‘marriage’ was actually consummated is a question which remains unanswered (p 239 Burkett). The marriage takes place at night; the Choes revellers stand with torches around the couch of Dioysis and Ariadne (p 240) A mask Dionysus is represented by a mask. The mask is fastened to a column. Neara, mentioned above, enacted this role ‘she was given to Dionysus as wife, she conducted for the city the ancestral practices towards the gods, many sacred, secret practices (Demosth). Or. 59.73 in Burkett p 239).
In the Gilgamesh Epic. (around 2600 b.c.) a masterpiece of ANE literature, composed in Akkadian features a harlot harimtu is mentioned[34]. Her role is honorable; sexuality is civilizing; this is her task. The Code of Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.) regulates the Naditum, a class of cultic servant women who were required to live respectable lives and serve in the temple of the god Marduk.
However, Lerner explains that confusion arose amongst modern scholars, such as Vern L. Bullogh[35] by referring to all of this activity as prostitution and ‘by using the term “hierodule”without distinguishing the various types of women engaging in cultic or commercial sexual activity. Lerner notes that there is also a difference between women practicing prostitution of their own free will for commercial ends and women and debt slaves sold by parents or husbands. ‘legal texts show in the Ancient near East that ‘prostitution was a recognised and established institution. ‘Though not a very honourable profession, no disgrace was attached to the person practicing it. The professional prostitute was a free-born independent woman and the law protected her economic position[36]
The book of Leviticus warns the Israelites, ‘do not prostitute your daughter’[37]. The Israelites were forbidden to bring into the sanctuary, the ‘hire of a whore’ for any vow [38]. ‘It has long been assumed that the terms qades/qedesa allude to the practice of cultic prostitution in Israel, yet recent studies seriously question this widespread assumption’[39].
‘It is possible that mysteries arose from puberty initiations’ (Burkett p 277) Yet Greek mysteries only exist in the true sense if and as far as initiation is open to both sexes and also to non-citizens. Second, there is the agrarian aspect The wine festival was not a mystery. (p 277 Burkett).a third and undeniable aspect were the sexual aspect: genital symbols exposures and occasionally veritable orgies, in the commons sense are attested. Puberty initiation, agrarian magic and sexuality may unite in the experience of life overcoming death. Finally there is the aspect of myth…. secret tales hieroi logoi, mostly telling of suffering gods. The mystai in turn do suffer something in the initiation. The certainty of life attained by intoxication and sexual arousal goes together with insight into the cycle of nature. (p 277). A Neolithic basis, the Ancient Anatolian Mother, for the mysteries may be assumed (p 278) In the process of the Elysian mysteries, we do not know the true course of events, and Burke asks the question, ‘was there a sacred marriage of hierophant and priestess? (p 288).
Sexual activities in and around the Babylonian temples, is reported by Herodotus, (5thCentury B.C.) in the temple of the goddess Mylitta[40]. The other was written by the Roman geographer Strabo some four hundred years later, confirming Herodotus. He mentions a law that has to be fulfilled ‘Such of the women … who are ugly have to stay a long time before they can fulfil the law. Some have waited three or four years in the precinct’[41]. Lerner says there are no known ’laws’ regulating or even referring to this practice[42]. In another place, Herodotus reports a story told to him by Babylonian priests, where the high priestess dwelt in a room with a couch, in which the God nightly visited her. Whether actually carried out or symbolically re-enacted there is no way of knowing[43].
END
[1] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 62. ‘
[2] ‘Their works have not reached us entire … but enough remains in the quotations of Athenaeus, Alciphron’s Letters, Lucian, Diogenes Laaertius, Aristophanes, Aristaenetus, and others’ [2] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 62.
[3] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 43.
[4] Plutarch, Life of Demetrius, 16, 19, 24-27; in W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, eugenics publishing, p. 53. This amount was estimated by Sanger in 1897, when the work was originally published.
[5] cW.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 54.
[6] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 59.
[7] Plutarch on Pericles, The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives, Penguin, Victoria, p. 190.
[8]cPlutarch on Pericles, The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives, Penguin, Victoria, 1960, p. 183.
[9] Plutarch, Perikles 24.2-9, in Mathew Dillon and Linda garland, Ancient Greece, Social and historical documernts from Archaic times to the death of Socrates(c.800-399 B.C., (2nd ed.) Routledge, London, 2000, pp. 399-400.
[10] J. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth: A history of the city to 338 B.C., Clarendale Press. Oxford, 1984, p. 400.
[11] Alexis, Fr. 18 Pickard- Cambridge, in Mary R. Lefkowitz & Maureen B. Fant, Women’s Life in Greece and Rome, 1982, p. 27.
[12] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897,p. 56.
[13] Plutarch on Pericles, The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives, Penguin, Victoria, 1960, p. 191.
[14] Plutarch, Life of Pericles, 24
[15] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 60.
[16] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 60.
[17] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 58-59
[18] Strabo
[19] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 58-.
[20] J. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth: A history of the city to 338 B.C., Clarendale Press. Oxford, 1984, p. 398.
[21] W.W. Sanger, History of Prostitution, 1897, Eugenics publishing, 1897, p. 58-.
[22] Strabo
[23] Pindar Fr. 107 Bowra, in J. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth: A history of the city to 338 B.C., Clarendale Press. Oxford, 1984, p. 398. cJ. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth: A history of the city to 338 B.C., Clarendale Press. Oxford, 1984, p. 398.
[24] J. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth: A history of the city to 338 B.C., Clarendale Press. Oxford, 1984, p. 398.
[26]Walter Burkett, Greek religion: Archaic and Classical, transl. John Raffan, Basil Blackwell, 1985, p. 8.
[27] Kramer, Her Share of the Blessings, p. 80.
[28] Strabo Geography, 11.14.16..
[29] New Ecyclopedia Britannia, vol. 25, p. 76; Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 22. pp. 672-74; Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 13 (New York, 1934), p. 553 etc.
[30] Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986, p125.
[31][31] Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986, p125.
[32] Lerner, pp. 69, 125.
[33] Lerner p. 126.
[34]Gigamesh Epic, Freedman, David Noel, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday) 1997, 1992.
[35] Vern L. Bullogh, Attitudes Toward Deviant Sex in Ancient Mesopotamia in Vern L. Bullogh, Sex, Socie\ety and History (New York, 1976), pp. 17-36, makes the same observation (pp. 22023).
[36] Isaac Mendelsohn Slavery in the ANE in Lerner Patriarchy f/n 31 p. 129.
[37] Leviticus 19:29.
[38]Deut. 23:17-18. The King James Version, (Cambridge: Cambridge) 1769.
[39] Anchor Bible Dictionary ‘Prostitution’
[40] Herodotus, Histories
[41] Herodotus
[42] Lerner p. 129.
[43] Lerner p. 129-30.